Environmental Management I NSCI-E126 (Spengler/Buckley)
Refer to E126 Course Syllabus for lecture dates.
LECTURE ONE ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF CAPE COD When we talk about environments we need to consider: What do we NEED to do? What do we WANT to do? REGULATION leads to ENFORCEMENT, which in turn leads to BUREAUCRACY It is an attempt to slow down bad things ZONING: limit growth but what is too much growth, hard to define typically states/towns control zoning CAPE COD: moves three feet per year, on average basically just a big sand pile 8-20,000 years old way station for birds as they migrate north and south richest fishing ground implemented fishing regulations, which are working the bass and bluefish are coming back Pleasant Bay is an Area of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC) we will be going on a field trip to visit coastal environments, including Pleasant BayLECTURE TWO OCEAN & LAND INTERACTION BOTTLE BILL: 10-12 years old, is working trash is down, price of soda decreased, injuries from cans/bottles are down SALT MARSH GRASS: Spartina alterniflora: taller cord grass, lower edge of marsh SALT MARSH HAY: Spartina patens: shorter cord grass, upper edge of marsh HALOPHYLIC: likes salt water, which is about 3.5% sodium, salt comes from runoff ESTUARY: 1-3% sodium, brackish water COMPACTION: people/vehicles travel over an area, results in compaction H2S gas collects on compaction, turns the ground acidic burns plants and they die off OSPREY: Pandion baliaetus or Osprey is a species that is rebounding in the wetlands 1975-1985 DDT ruined the eggs, calcium carbonate could not solidify, resulted in soft egg shells, mother bird sat on eggs and crushed them also affected Pelicans, Eagles and birds that ate higher up on the food chain local residents built platforms to attract the Osprey baby Osprey crash into water, may appear to be drowning, just practice diving CREEKS: blood vessels, as tides change saltwater flows in or freshwater flows out MARINE PLANTS: Salicornia: called glasswort/seapickle, succulent edible stems, fibrous, salty, blooms under water, usually found in large numbers, food for animals, adds nutrients to the coast when they die oxygenates the shoreline, captures CO2 Zostera marina: called eelgrass, found in subtidal environment, adds nutrients to the coast when they die acts as a barrier to waves, prevents erosion dead grass on beach also buffers against waves and erosion wiped out in the 70s by a plague COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS: harsh, species use up energy defending against wind, rain, and salt fewer species, but many more of each of those species BLUEFISH: Pomatomus saltatrix: they drive bait into shallows Some bluefish had high levels of PCBs; some had low levels, why? Eat different prey, stomach content analysis No Different age fish No Different breeding/migrating grounds No Way they are cooked, skin on or off Yes Skin had all the lipids that contained the PCBs QUAHOGS: Mercenaria mercenaria: hard shelled clam, grow to be 100 years old best reproduction occurs at about 10 years old BLUE MUSSEL: Mytilus edulis: cold water, indicator species, collects toxins in environment filters about 25 gallons of water a day, blue mussel watch tests them every week RIBBED MUSSEL: Modiolus demissus: warmer water BAY SCALLOPS: Pecten irradians: blue-eyed, all reproduce within 30-90 days, then die shellfish officer checks 100 scallops to see how many have reproduced, when enough scallops have reproduced, then they are harvested
LECTURE THREE WETLANDS COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT ACT: controversial when introduced, needed 2/3 of the votes or the majority all stakeholders were involved, recreational and political considered past uses and abuses, present uses and future uses or needs seed money came from the Federal Government create a management structure or plan began to develop water quality, define what is clean water or unpolluted water water is safe to drink or swim in or boat in WETLANDS: not maintaining wetlands, loosing more habitats every year TROPICAL FOREST: mostly in third world regions, only US location is in Florida Indonesia/Malaysia was going to ban clear cutting, everyone started burning, huge forest fire, haze over the country, respiratory problems, airplane crashes COASTAL ZONE: 50 miles inland, out to low tide or up to the 200-mile limit WETLANDS: wetlands perform many functions: 1. flood conveyance 2. flood control 3. sediment control 4. buffer from water and erosion 5. water storage 6. nesting area, habitat 7. biodiversity 8. biomass production, food for plants and animals 9. commercial fisheries 10. recreation, boating, swimming, fishing 11. archaeological resources 12. open space 13. alternative to a built environment
LECTURE FOUR WATER POLLUTION LAKE EERIE: polluted from run-off, pesticides, and industry CELL MEMBRANE: pollution effects organisms at the cellular level an outer wall protects cell, which is a phospholipid bilayer chemicals permeate and ravage the cell membrane WATER QUALITY TRENDS: Biological O2 Demand) + Chemical O2 Demand = Total O2 Demand healthy dissolved oxygen levels = 8-10%, shallow water levels can be 0-4 % unhealthy oxygen levels = 1-2 ppm consistently nitrates, phosphates exaggerate this problem NITRATES/NITRITES: too much nitrogen, causes eutrophication simple solution: use herbicides, kills everything, dead matter falls to bottom pond clears, but regrowth is heavier because of extra nutrients from dead matter PFISTERIA: dinoflagellate algae found in Maryland, Virginia, more toxic than red tide excess nutrients promote growth of these algae invades and kills fish, researchers and fisherman got sick changes mode of reproduction based on environment, alternation of generations PROTOCTISA: family includes dinoflagellates like Noctiluca and Peridinium: benign Gonyaulex and Gymnodinium: phosphorescent and red tide, toxic Volvox: uroglenopsis algael cell, splits apart and quickly grows excess nutrients promote growth can cause sickness in animals, paralytic shellfish disease if you eat calms pH: 7 = neutral, less than 7 is acidic, greater than 7 is alkaline/base 6.5 - 7.5 is where most living organisms can survive acid rain decreases pH, can add lime to pull pH back up to neutral POLLUTION: unnatural addition to a natural environment
LECTURE FIVE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHICS: THE POWER OF WATER FRESHWATER: 3% of all water is fresh, 97% is saltwater DRINKING WATER: In the lower 48 states it is not safe to drink water unless it is treated THE MIGHTIEST RIVER: Columbia River, Washington State, drains into the Pacific Ocean used to be 10-16 million Salmon, fisherman gill net Salmon hydroelectric dams have been built, cheapest power in the U.S. the dams have limited the Salmon's habitat, now only 300,000 left in 1980 the Salmon got coequal status to hydroelectric power built fish ladders and barge juveniles up river around the dams THE GREAT LAKES: 43 toxic hotspots Niagra and Buffalo Rivers are two of the most polluted rivers toxins include PCBs, dioxin, and Myrex there is an area known as chemical alley, where Love Canal was Buffalo River Rats: school children that monitor clean up of the river THE EVERGLADES: it is literally dying of thirst perfect example of an ecosystem crash 90% of the wading birds are gone farmed water away to the suburbs and citrus farms over 2,000 square miles have been lost, half of the Everglades tropical, wet season May to October, gets 45 inches of rain dry season from November to April THE OGALLALA AQUIFER: holds a quadrillion gallons Midwest, underneath breadbasket, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas in the last 40 years the water table has dropped 120 feet water is being used 25 times faster than it is being replaced in the U.S. there are 900,000,000 cows LAND OF LITTLE RAIN: was a drought that lasted 24 years the parched west now produces the most vegetables Colorado River has been diverted now ends several hundred sooner than it used to CLASS LECTURE: there is a nonrenewable supply of water lacking standards for most chemicals, only know the lethal dose companies negotiate dumping practices through compromise trade off between best practical technology/best available technology companies must provide what toxins they receive and where they go companies admit what they are dumping, then agree to cut down bubble approach: new, if I'm polluting but can not fix it, can help my neighbor fix his pollution, overall pollution comes down
LECTURE SIX THE WATER CYCLE VERNAL WETLANDS: only wet part of the time, also dry part of the time when it is dry on the top, still damp contains eggs and cysts gets wet again, a new cycle of growth begins TYPES OF WETLANDS (shown with overhead pictures): Water table wetlands: aeration zone, moisture belt, zone of saturation pool of peat and muck over saturated sand/gravel Wetland on till/bedrock: pool of peat and muck, on till (rubble, small rocks) with bedrock below Lake bottom wetland: shallow unconfined aquifer over silt and clay confining bed of sand and gravel artesian confined aquifer Perched wetland: sometimes very old pool of water on peat, peat clay, clay, dry sand and gravel, saturated sand and gravel Recharge area: during recharge season water table rises movement of water into the ground Discharge area: during discharge season water table decreases movement of water out of the ground, evaporation Polluted area: gas station and road, salt runoff from road storage tanks leak, automobile related pollution all flow into nearby body of water Altered drainage: area is back-filled, shopping center is built so much area is covered by pavement, no recharge water flows into pond and is discharged Altered floodplain: area is back-filled, homes are built basements are below seasonal flood zone 100 year flood is up to second floor LOCALLY: Great Meadow in Lexington large inland wetlands PERFORMANCE BONDS: ensures that the builder must perform, finish the job should get a performance bond on all projects
PFISTERIA ARTICLE "THE CELL FROM HELL" U.S. News and World Report, July 28, 1997, pg 26-28 HISTORY: 1991: Pfsiteria is discovered 1993: JoAnn Burkholder discovers microbe and gets sick 1995: kills 14 million fish, Neuse River is closed, 364,000 acres of shellfish beds off limits 1996: 20,000 rockfish in a Maryland fish farm on Chesapeake Bay are killed 1997: Maryland officials fund a $250,000 emergency study of Pfisteria type lesions on fish in the lower Pocomoke River SYMPTOMS: open sores, nausea, memory loss, fatigue, disorientation, near total incapacitation PAST 25 YEARS: more than 35 poisonous algae outbreaks Brown tide wiped out $20 million bay scallop industry on Eastern Long Island Red tide on Florida's west coast killed 150 Manatees, 10% of state's population Brown tide in Corpus Christie has killed the eelgrass for 7 years INDICATOR: Pfisteria is an indication of the declining health of the nation's 127 ecologically vital bays and estuaries CELLS: hard, crystalline state in sediment of bays and estuaries swell into ambush predators with twin flagella that propel them toward prey release toxin 1,000 times more powerful than cyanide kills a guppy in 10 minutes, 20 pound bass in 4 hours, fish gasp for oxygen feed on dying fish, reproduce quickly, return to dormancy in sediment laboratory tests show voracious appetite for human blood CAUSES: urban sprawl increases pollution rich in nitrogen and phosphorous industrial hog farming in eastern North Carolina hundreds of millions of gallons of untreated swine urine and feces 16 million pigs, second largest hog producer National Pork Council is researching better disposal methods ALBERMARLE-PAMLICO SOUND: nations second largest bay after Chesapeake half of the nursery waters for fish spawned between Maine and Florida SOLUTIONS: better sewage treatment controlling farm runoff improved wetlands protection use of algicidal bacteria, parasites, and viruses
ARTCILE FROM CAPE COD FIELD TRIP "PAW WAH POINT CONSERVATION AREA TRAIL GUIDE" Friends of Pleasant Bay HISTORY: 1762: 64 members of the Nauset Tribe, last native American settlement on the Cape Paw Wah Point is part of the Portanimicut (at the round rock) of south Orleans Qua-tocka-mon was the last chief of the Nausets 1984: 9 house subdivision plan is developed 1987: Town of Orleans purchases the 12-acre area for conservation designated a state Area of Critical Environmental Concern ocean storm created a breakthrough in Nauset Beach the storm drastically altered tide levels, currents, and shellfish beds 1991: Friends of Pleasant Bay prepared a land management study on the town's behalf GEOGRAPHY: Sampson Island: Indian exchanges his right to take drift whales, owned by Pochet Island Trust Hog Island: fowl hunting, used to graze cows, sheep and hogs, owned by Pochet Island Trust Pochet Island: owned by Pochet Island Trust, which protects islands from further development Money Head: Captain Kidd may have buried treasure here Nauset Beach: long sandy barrier between the bay and the ocean Hummock: 37 acres of marsh, owned by the town, once a major source of marsh hay Simpson Island: 1966 court decision said it could be developed because it is in a "public way" Strong Island: 1974 Chatham Conservation Foundation purchased it for $700,000 Nickerson Neck: Naval air station from 1917-1919 TRAIL GUIDE: STOP 1: Pine Oak Woods: scrubby woodland, predominant forest of Cape Cod, second growth consists of pitch pine, black, white and scarlet oaks typical of droughty, sandy soils of glacial southern New England STOP 2: Pitch Pine: needs natural fire, primary disperser after a fire assumes any shape to reach sunlight STOP 3; look for rufous sided towhee, ovenbird, red squirrel, whip-poor-whill, screech owl STOP 4: Great White Pine: largest and oldest on Paw Wah Point, needs moisture, rare on the Cape 1761 white oaks greater than 2 feet in diameter had an arrow burned in the bark Royal Pines to be used only for the Royal Navy, violators would lose their land STOP 5: Dead Pitch Pine: condo for flickers, screech owls, hairy and downy woodpeckers, titmice, chickadees, nuthatches, and great crested flycatchers which all eat insects STOP 6: Hurricane Bob: 1991, ripped through Pleasant Bay, major tree damage STOP 7: Salt Marsh: home of a wide variety of marine life from amphipods to seals erratics: large rocks, part of the glacial moraine, glacier left 12,000 years ago
ARTCILE FROM CAP COD FIELD TRIP PIPING PLOVER U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service PIPING PLOVER: small, sandy, colored shorebird chases retreating waves to eat fly larvae, marine worms, beetles POPULATIONS: East Coast, Great Lakes, and Great Plains populations East Coast population migrates from New Foundland to Caribbean Islands HISTORY: 1900: almost disappeared because of hunting 1918: protected from hunting 1940: population rebounds 1940+: population declines, because of development and use of beaches East Coast population is 875 pairs 1986: listed Great Lakes population as endangered species East Coast as a threatened species recovery teams prepared recovery plans CRITICAL HABITAT: areas of land, water and air space that a species needs to survive and recover U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service identifies critical areas a list is published, reviewed, and then becomes official any activity that needs a federal permit or funding are reviewed also promotes public awareness HABITAT CRITERIA: satisfies 1 or more of the following criteria: 1. consistently supports a significant portion of the State's breeding population 2. contributes to a high rate of productivity, may represent recruitment 3. supports breeding pairs 4. potential to contribute significantly to the recovery objectives if current limiting factors are reduced or eliminated 5. represents important feeding or nesting habitat during migration MAKING THE RULES: threatened species: one that is likely to become endangered in foreseeable future endangered species: on the brink of extinction throughout most of its range to add a species a Proposed Rule is published in the Federal Register State and local governments and scientific organizations are notified notices are published in newspapers in each area of the U.S. affected public has 60-90 days to comment on the Proposed Rule, revisions are made Final Rule is published in the Federal Register
ARTCILE FROM CAPE COD FIELD TRIP "MINI WORLD OF THE SALT MARSH CREEK" Kenneth R.H. Read PLEASANT BAY, CAPE COD: August 1973, Bill Sargent ran a program for gifted high school students studied a Southern New England salt marsh and estuary using an underwater tele-macro camera took pictures of small creatures INHABITANTS: Tabanus: green head biting flies Zosteria marina: eelgrass Spartina alterniflora: cord grass Palaemonates vulgaris: 1" marsh shrimp, eyes on yellow stalks, transparent, brown to yellow stomach, heart, feathery tufts of the gill Probopyrus pandalicola: parasite on the shrimp, yellow egg mass Fundulus heteroclitus: mummichog/killfish, or chub, distended jaws, upward mouth Modiolus demissus: Atlantic ribbed mussel Menidia menidia: silverfish Cyprinodon variegatus: 1" sheepshead minnows, males have salmon bellies females have spotted dorsal fins Nassarius obsoletus: mud snails, searching proboscis, eat bottom living diatoms snail eyespots are halfway up the tentacles Carcinus maenas: green crab Anguilla rostrata: eel, 18" long, well developed lateral line system, sixth sense Limulus polyphemus: horseshoe crab Pecten irradians: bay scallop Callinectes sapidus: blue crab Libinia: spider crab
ARTCILE FROM CAPE COD FIELD TRIP PREDATION OF THE MOLLUSCAN SPECIES BY THE HORSESHOE CRAB George D. Buckley American Malacological Bulletin 2 (1984), pg 96 HORSESHOE CRAB: considered to be a major predator of commercial shellfish blood is valuable to biomedical research EXPERIMENT: study predator-prey relationships of horseshoe crab and mollusks Limulus polyphemus stomach contents were analyzed from 100 crabs feeding observations of 200 crabs predator-prey studies with Nereis/Glycera (polychaete genera) Leptosynapta (glass sea cucumber), Mya (soft-shell clam), Ensis (razor clam), Mercenaria (quahog), and Gemma (gem clam) RESULTS: stomach content indicated a carnivorous scavenger fed on soft-shell and razor clam, quahog, bivalves, but most often gem clams quantities tended to approximate proportions in the area feeding observations confirmed stomach contents SIGNIFICANCE: horseshoe crab is not as large a threat to commercial shellfish ARTCILE FROM CAPE COD FIELD TRIP THE CINDERELLA CRAB Seth Rolbein Investor Magazine, 9/88, pg 86-94 HORSHOE CRAB: lived on earth for 200 million years, older than dinosaurs and the ice ages related to the spider family amazingly prolific, in May they mate on the beach fisherman thought they were voracious shellfish eaters bounties for their tails, historically thrown above high-tide line to kill them fisherman have been killing them, bait for eels and conch, used as fertilizer BLUE BLOOD: horseshoe crab blood has a substance that can make taking certain drugs safer diagnose spinal meningitis and gonorrhea, makes kidney dialysis less risky at the hinge of the crab look for a scar, means crab has given blood recently a Nobel Prize was awarded for the work done with the crab's blood the copper in the crab's blood turns blue when exposed to the air ASSOCIATES OF CAPE COD: in Famoulth, bleeds 50,000 crabs a year healthy, larger than 6", come from Buzzards, Cape Cod and Pleasant Bays the crab is washed clean, placed hinge down, shell folded 3" hypodermic needle is used to draw 50 milliliters of blood in 5 minutes crabs are returned home within 48 hours, if handled properly no ill effects crabs are big, easy to work with, easy to keep alive, and do not bite blood is refined, freeze dried, reduced to a powder, provides a sensitive medium detects presence of endotoxins from gram negative bacteria gram negative bacteria cause disease and contaminate drugs horseshoe blood coagulates within 15 minutes quick test for drug purity, replaces rabbits, and test for spinal meningitis HISTORY: 1885: clotting of blood documented and studied 1956: Dr. Frederick Bang discovered endotoxin caused blood to clot 1964: Dr. Bang/Jack Levin published a paper about the use of crab blood in testing 1967: H.K. Hartline awarded Nobel Prize for basic research on vision 1974: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute declines to harvest crab blood Dr. Stanley Watson spins off Associates of Cape Cod to harvest blood 1988: pay fishermen 70 cents a crab, sell blood for $35 per vial of 50 milliliters 90% of crabs are returned and survive, in the past only about 50% lived FUTURE: first in vitro test to replace an animal test developing a test for red tide toxin, now use mice the blood can test microchip components for endotoxins that disrupt energy flow a prime example of why biodiversity should be saved
LECTURE THREE NOTES FROM THE READINGS CHAPTER 13, 396-397 COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 1972: encourage states to regulate development of wetlands provided planning and implementation grants WETLANDS: 185-215 million acres originally 1950-1970 lost 500,000 acres annually 1970 lost 300,000 acres annually 50% now gone in the lower 48 states, 100,000 million acres left 95% lost to human activities, 5% to succession 95% are inland marshes, 5% are coastal 1977: Carter: executive order, the policy of the nation is to conserve wetlands Bush: "no net loss of wetlands" CHAPTER 14, 411 MINI-GLOSSARY CLEAR CUTTING: forest-harvesting technique where all trees are cut down DREDGING: removing earth from the bottom of a body of water ENDANGERED SPECIES: species in danger of extinction in all or a significant portion of its range THREATENED SPECIES: species likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future WETLANDS: inland freshwater marshes, swamps, bogs, coastal saltwater marshes in a broad sense lakes and ponds WILDERNESS: legally an area of public land so designated by the U.S. Congress prohibits development and commercial resource extraction
LECTURE THREE NOTES FROM THE READINGS CHAPTER 14, 414-416 WETLAND: edge effect where land and water come together 5 CLASSES OF WETLANDS: broad-leaved deciduous, gum, oak, maple, ash needle-leaved deciduous, cypress, tamarack broad-leaved evergreen, mangroves, sweet bay, loblolly needle-leaved evergreen, black spruce, white cedar, and pond pine dead wetland, woody vegetation, caused by prolonged flooding HISTORY: 1849-1850: Swamp Lands Act: national policy promoted draining and filling wetlands for agriculture 1972: Coastal Zone Management Act: protect wetlands from abuse, create management plans 1986: North American Waterfowl Management Plan: between U.S., Canada, Mexico 6 million acres may be protected under this treaty 1986: Emergency Wetlands Resources Act: $40 million a year for wetland purchase 1989: North American Wetlands Conservation Act: funding so the government can purchase and manage critical habitat for migrating waterfowl DEGRADATION: Mari-culture (saltwater aqua-culture) can contaminate and acidify soil slash and burn means they just move on once the soil is ruined excessive nutrients from sewage, construction, agriculture and forest cutting WETLAND USES: flood storage, flood conveyance, erosion control, wave barrier, sediment control, pollution control, wildlife habitat, recreation, water supply, aquifer recharge CHAPTER 14, 424-425 CLEAN WATER ACT SECTION 404: need a permit to discharge fill or dredged materials into U.S. waters protects coastal waters better than inland waters also covers new development and construction does not cover farming, timbering, excavating, flooding, draining HISTORY: 1986: Office of Wetlands was created in the EPA to carry out Section 404 1989: Corps of Engineers and EPA signed Memorandum of Agreement uniform procedures for applying this wetland destruction mitigation policy 1989: uniform method established for identifying wetlands using hydrology, soils, vegetation 1990: revised because regulated interests complained needed consistent issuance of permits 1990: Farm Bill is not effectively used LECTURE FOUR NOTES FROM THE READINGS CHAPTER 12, 357-363 LAKE EERIE: largest reservoir of fresh water on earth, contains 20% of the world's supply Lake Eerie is the shallowest, serves the most people and industry drains 30,000 square miles, 70% from U.S. side, 30% Canadian side 11.5 million Americans dump sewage there, 1 million Canadians Detroit River brings 5,000 cubic yards of sediment a day, 50,000 on stormy days EUTROPHICATION: significantly changed the character of life in the lake, accelerated the aging process shallow industrial western basin is the worst HISTORY: 1972: U.S./Canadian government spent over $7.5 billion to limit phosphorous in municipal discharge 1980: 75% of industrial U.S. polluters met minimum treatment standards 1985: 85% reduction in discharge of phosphorous National Research Council/Royal Society of Canada report, limit non-point source pollution, develop a comprehensive toxic substance management strategy OHIO RIVER: 200,000 square miles, serves 20 million people, 2,000 major industrial operations 75% of U.S. coal production, 33% of U.S. steel production, 94 million acres of cropland HISTORY: 1936: labeled a "cesspool" 1948: 99% of raw sewage went into the Ohio River completely untreated 1987: ORSANCO (states bordering river) issue report listing problems: 1. low alkalinity, acidic 2. high fecal coliform counts 3. high in iron, manganese, zinc, copper, chloroform, lead, phenols, nickel, chromium, mercury, arsenic, cadmium 4. toxic substances including DDT, chlordane 5. PCBs and pesticides in fish CONCLUSION: eat fish from river no more than once a week 1990: ORSANCO report on non-point pollution, agriculture runoff most widespread, mining most severe STUDY ON WATER QUALITY IN U.S. RIVERS: 1. may not meet national water quality goals because of non-point source pollution 2. atmospheric contaminants are impacting water quality 3. decreased fecal coliform due to better wastewater treatment 4. dissolved oxygen did not worsen even though population and GNP increased 5. suspended sediments and nitrates were high near agriculture 6. phosphorous concentrations were down where point source pollution was controlled 7. salinity was high due to the salting of highways 8. arsenic and cadmium increased from fossil fuel combustion 9. dissolved lead decreased on the coasts due to decreased leaded fuel consumption
LECTURE FOUR NOTES FROM THE READINGS CHAPTER 12, 357-363 MEDITERRANEAN SEA: heavily polluted for ages, 200 million people live near it, 44 million interact directly with it small shallow isolated sea, human impact will be an indication of what will happen to the oceans 1977 STUDY OF POLLUTION: 1. domestic sewage: 87-90% untreated, 1973 Italian cholera epidemic 2. industrial waste: increases in localized spots along coast of copper, most others appear normal 3. oil pollution: tarry lumps wash up on beach, decimation of some species, problems in harbors and on the coast 4. farm related pollution: from inflow of rivers versus runoff 5. radioactive waste: not a problem currently CONCLUSION: sea is polluted, localized and coastal, open sea looks more normal OCEANS: 70% of earth's surface, serious problems are localized red tides were considered natural events, now beginning to associate with over enrichment 1/3 of coastal shellfish beds are closed at any one time $6 billion in commercial and recreational fishing threatened by pollution 6 million metric tons of litter is dumped in the ocean annually 1987: Office of Technology Assessment predicts water quality of oceans to decrease without control limit runoff, limit dumping and disposal of dredged materials coastal waters were high in organic chemicals and disease causing organisms, low in oxygen heavy metals and toxic chemicals are too high in upper levels of water 1989: International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships 39 nations prohibit disposal of plastic in the ocean 1989: Convention on Preventing of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matters 60 nations prohibit dumping of plastics and other persistent materials bans ocean incineration of toxins by the year 1994 GROUNDWATER: 95% of rural households, 1/3 of largest U.S. cities use groundwater in 1990 U.S. used 100 billion gallons of groundwater per day source of 50% of the irrigation water used in the western U.S. next largest source of water on earth besides the oceans POLLUTION: 10,000 plus toxic waste dumps identified by the EPA EPA estimate 28-54 million tons of toxic waste Office of Technology Assessment estimates 275million tons 350,000 gasoline tanks may leak in the next 5 years 1/3 of all cities relying on groundwater have experienced contamination chloride, nitrates, heavy metals, hydrocarbons most common pollutants
LECTURE FOUR NOTES FROM THE READINGS CHAPTER 12, 357-363 1990 EPA REPORT: contamination by 1 pesticide in 10% of community drinking water contamination by 1 pesticide in 4% of rural drinking wells nitrates found in 50% of the wells tested, some levels were high first step in collecting groundwater data NATURAL CLEANSING MECHANISMS: 1. surface absorption 2. dilution 3. mechanical filtration 4. precipitation following chemical interaction 5. buffering 6. chemical neutralization 7. microbial degradation 8. plant uptake CURRENTLY: no national policy on groundwater protection 16 pieces of federal legislation, 11 federal agencies involved EPA CATEGORIZES EFFORTS TO PROTECT GROUNDWATER 1. develop statewide groundwater plans 2.aquifer classification laws 3.standards setting limits on contaminants 4. land use management laws control land activities that may contaminate water 5. funds to be used for replacing water supplies or for monitoring or cleanup 6. laws regulating agricultural chemicals 7. laws regulating underground storage tanks 8.water use laws relating to water withdrawals from underground supplies
LECTURE SIX NOTES FROM THE READINGS CHAPTER 12, 364-379 SELF PURIFICATION OF WATER: PHYSICAL: dilution, absorption of chemical contaminants into suspended clay particles settle out into sedimentation, even deep ocean sediment BIOLOGICAL: microorganisms degrade the organic matter in waterways CHEMICAL: organic and inorganic acids neutralized by reaction with calcium carbonate, lime PRIMARY SEWAGE TREATMENT: PHYSICAL remove solids from wastewater using filters, gas chambers, sedimentation tanks and grinders chlorination kills the bacteria and viruses but creates compounds that are carcinogenic SECONDARY SEWAGE TREATMENT: BIOLOGICAL ACTIVTAED SLUDGE PROCESS: aerobic microorganisms decompose organic matter TRICKLE PROCESS: vat filled with stones that decomposers live on, air is forced upward organic matter turned into water, salts, and carbon dioxide ANAEROBIC DIGESTER: uses high temperatures, takes about 15 days, produces methane gas TERTIARY SEWAGE TREATMENT: CHEMICAL add chemicals to remove compounds like phosphorous, nitrogen by adding iron or aluminum salts MODERN PHYSIOCHEMICAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS: basic components: PRETREATMENT: industry removes toxins before discharge CLARIFICATION: alum or lime is added, precipitate wastes into particulate masses that settle FILTRATION: remove any remaining suspended particles ABSORPTION: activated carbon, removes organic matter by chemically charged attractions ELECTRODIALYSIS: charged poles attract negatively and positively charges ions from water DISINFECTION: uses chlorine expensive, energy intensive, unaffected by cold and toxins that disrupt secondary systems PACKAGE TREATMENT PLANTS: small plants, need maintenance and attention, troublesome if there are a lot of them INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL: metals and toxins can be removed from effluent chemically, or can use other methods volume reduction, strength reduction, neutralization, equalization of discharge, release in proportion to amount of flow or capacity of receiving waters wet tower: carries heat away as evaporation, may alter precipitation patters dry tower: carries heat away by a fan, but requires energy to run fan holding or cooling pond: simply hold water until temperature modifies but takes up space
LECTURE SIX NOTES FROM THE READINGS CHAPTER 12, 364-379 DEEP WELL INJECTION: sink waste into limestone or sandstone strata, ideally where confined by impermeable strata below the water table, but increases the chances of earthquakes from the pressures of injection millions of barrels of waste are being injected into wells every day RECYCLING WATER AND WATERBORNE WASTE: pollutants are resources out of place, reclaim materials used in a process like zinc multiple use, water from kitchen sink flushes toilet, reduce water treatments needs by 40% sewage enrichment, uses as a fertilizer or soil conditioner accelerate succession in strip mined areas, leaches out acids, creates wet environment large scale systems of multiple use, using pretreated water to irrigate PURIFICATION OF DRINKING WATER: 1. spray into air to release gases like hydrogen sulfide, which give water a bad taste 2. treat chemically, alum to clump particles so they can be removed 3. settle suspended solids in sedimentation basins 4. system of filters, sand and other absorbents that remove materials, bacteria and viruses 5. chlorination to kill remaining microorganisms ECONOMICS OF WATER POLLUTION AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL: historically water was a free medium, and there was an inexhaustible supply treatment costs increase with each level of treatment secondary treatment costs two to three times primary treatment tertiary treatment costs six times primary treatment $28.2 billion spent on pollution control from 1978-1987 WATER POLLUTION LAW IN THE U.S.: 1. states establish criteria for meaningful water quality standards 2. EPA sets limits on what is dumped and develops guidelines for setting water quality standards 3. EPA sets performance standards for industrial and sewage treatment plants 4. regulate water pollution via a permit system until all pollution ceases HISTORY: 1899: Refuse Act: addressed problems of navigation, disease and oil discharge 1948: Water Pollution Control Act, passed again in 1956, 1961, 1965, 1966, 1970 1972: Federal Water Pollution Act: effluent limitations for current point sources of pollution performance standards for new plants, started National Pollution Discharge Elimination System, aimed at reducing pollutants, national system of water quality surveillance 1977: Federal Water Pollution Act amended 1987: Water Quality Act: revolving loan funds to pay for water control facility needs, non-point pollution assessment, standards for contaminants in sludge, started Clean Lake Program and National Estuaries Program
LECTURE SIX NOTES FROM THE READINGS CHAPTER 12, 364-379 NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT - 1970 established Council on Environmental Policy, study nation on a regular basis major projects that use federal money need environmental impact statements that EPA review SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT - 1974 standardize purity of water, taste, odor and appearance develop protective measures for underground water sources states have primary authority for enforcement SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT - 1986 strengthened significantly based on public concern evaluate unregulated contaminants hastened EPA's setting of national primary drinking standards monitor leakage from deep well injections WELLHEAD PROTECTION PROGRAM - 1986 protect surface and sub-surface water around wells SOLE SOURCE AQUIFER DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM - 1986 protect special aquifers that act as principal or sole water supply ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL ON ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY -1980 CONCLUSION: water quality did not get any worse in the 1970s
LECTURE SEVEN NOTES FROM THE READING CHAPTER 3, 45-48 WHAT IS WATER ? 1. universal internal medium of all living things 2. living things are 90% water 3. external medium of all aquatic life forms 4. universal solvent, almost anything dissolves in water to some degree 5. clear, transparent to light, allowing photosynthesis to some depths 6. high heat capacity, absorbs heat with little change in temperature 7. density increases with decreases in temperature, maximum density is at 4 degrees Celsius, lighter when frozen 8. freezes from the top down, ice is an insulator, slows down freezing process EVAPORATION: water transforms from a liquid to a gas, creates heat TRANSPIRATION: evaporation of water from the exposed parts of plants RESPIRATION: evaporation of water from the exposed parts of animals CONDENSATION: water transforms from a gas back to a liquid, cooling HYDROLOGIC CYCLE: EVAPORATION, CONDENSATION, PRECIPITATION OCEANS: = 97% SURFACE WATER: = little more than 2% ATMOSPHERE: = less than 1% AQUIFER: underground water storage area, typically above an impermeable rock layer, WATER TABLE: is the upper surface of the aquifer RAINFALL PATTERNS: major global wind patterns and topography combine to produce wet areas rain falls on the windward side of mountains, where land meets water there is a differential in air temperatures, more frequent meeting of cold and warm moisture filled air masses EL NINO: mass of warm water near coast of South America LA NINA: exceptionally cold mass of water near the equator SOUTHERN OSCILLATION: atmospheric changes that result from this change in temperature EL NINO/LA NINA: the two alternate every 3-6 years resulting in weather changes strong trade winds blow warm water west, bringing up cold water spring means weak trade winds, predominantly El Nino water 1982-1983: El Nino caused droughts in India and Australia, heavy rain in South America 1988: El Nino then by La Nina in spring caused bitter cold weather in Alaska/Canada
LECTURE SEVEN NOTES FROM THE READING CHAPTER 3, 55-58 LAW OF THE MINIMUM: organisms and living systems are held in check by the scarcest of the things they need, only applies during steady-state conditions, ecosystems are constantly changing and organisms may be limited by more than 1 resource, physical conditions or other organisms also a codependence of resources, need less water when it is cold more apparent in an aquatic environment that is more constant FACTORS GOVERNING THE SUPPLY OF NUTRIENTS: Phosphorous: soluble phosphorous plays a key role in storing, and releasing energy as part of the ATP molecule, linked to sulfur and iron binding, binding of sulfur and iron in an anaerobic aquatic environment creates soluble phosphorous Nitrogen: nitrogen fixers take atmospheric nitrogen, convert it to ammonia and nitrates, fixers also rely on availability of other minerals like phosphorous, iron, calcium FALL AND SPRING OVERTURN: EPILIMNION: upper layer, warm, high in oxygen, few nutrients THERMOCLINE: middle layer, dramatic vertical temperature boundary HYPOLIMNION: bottom layer, cool, low in oxygen, lots of nutrients IN FALL: surface layer cools, once colder than bottom layer, it becomes denser, layers mix in an overturn as top layer sinks; oxygen and nutrients are mixed IN SPRING: surface temperature goes below 4 degrees Celsius, becomes lighter, in spring the water warms; water becomes heavy at 4 degrees Celsius, overturns again OVERTURNS: can create ideal conditions for plant growth with nutrients at surface, result in algae blooms, may create a mat of algae, sunlight is blocked by mat, other plants die, decomposers boom, increased decomposition means more respiration, means oxygen is used up, may cause partial die off LAW OF TOLERANCE: too little or too much of various environmental chemical and physical factors can limit or regulate ecosystems, some organisms have wide ranges of tolerances animals and plants have a wide range of tolerances but humans have the widest range of tolerances BIOGEOGRAPHY: the study of the abundance and distribution of species in nature
LECTURE SEVEN NOTES FROM THE READING CHAPTER 7, 191-205 WATER HAS HELPED US TO: 1. irrigate deserts 2. transportation 3. to cool people 4. produce energy 5. carry off garbage and sewage 6. extending the range of human settlement and development ARTIFICIAL WATER SUPPLIES: irrigating semiarid and arid regions allows them to be developed they then become reliant on an artificial water supply demand may exceed supply depending on the source of the water may result in water shortages WORLDWIDE WATER SUPPLY: 4 x 10 20 gallons 97% is in the ocean and salty 2% is in ice caps/glaciers, stored for about 40 years 1% is in aquifers/soil, 50% of this is within 1 mile of the surface, and only 25% of this can be extracted with today's technology .001% rivers, lakes, seas, estuaries, stored about 100 years 5 out of every 100,000 gallons of water is in motion as precipitation, streams, and vapor, and this is the source for recharge U.S. RAINFALL: 30 inches or 4200 billion gallons per day 70% is lost to evaporation and another 25% becomes runoff GLOBAL RAINFALL: enough to sustain 20 billion people, but it is unevenly distributed RENEWABLE WATER SUPPLY: water that results from precipitation and imports, inflow GROSS SUPPLY: total water available WITHDRAWAL: water is used but returned to the environment in its original quality, industry CONSUMPTION: water quality is altered, agriculture consumes the most, 60% is lost to evaporation, the crop consumes 37% INSTREAM USE: navigation, fishing, habitat protection, recreation, aesthetic, wastewater dilution CONSUMPTION over the RENWABLE WATER SUPPLY: is the long-term viability of our water use
LECTURE SEVEN NOTES FROM THE READING CHAPTER 7, 191-205 WATER USE: 70% agriculture, 25% industrial, < 5 domestic water available per person will decline 24% by the end of the 20th century, assuming similar population growth and temperature stays the same specific countries will experience even larger declines, Kenya 50%, Nigeria 42%, Bangladesh/Egypt 33% 86% of rural populations lack clean water Aral Sea: 4th largest lake, 1960-1987 its area decreased by 40%, 13 meter drop in level now 40 million tons of salt from the dry seabed blow over and ruin the farmland, inflows were redirected for irrigation; the sea was not being recharged properly 1990's shortages are predicted for China, northern Africa, Mexico, India, Middle East, and the Western U.S. 76-270 liters per person per day in Europe, 2.5 liters in developing countries U.S. consumes the most per person per day 2,000 gallons per day worldwide, including all uses, toilets, lawns, industry 1950-1980: population increased by 1 ½ times, water increased by 2 ½ times rate of increase has slowed down as a result of more efficient use GROUNDWATER: AQUIFER: areas underlain by impermeable rock ARTESIAN: confined aquifers, between two impermeable rock layers SUBSIDENCE: water table is lowered and collapses or void is filled SALT WATER INTRUSION: lowered water table allows salt water to get in URBANIZATION: pavement increases runoff, does not percolate through the soil, lowers the water table OVERUSE: over-pumping of groundwater irrigates 72% of the acreage in Texas, 57% of Kansas, 46% Oklahoma, 41% Arizona, 20% of total U.S. acreage OGALLALA AQUIFER: underlies high plain states, Kansas, Nebraska, Texas, Wyoming, Colorado, Oklahoma water table has dropped by 100 feet since the 1950s, water table drops 2-5 feet per year cost of pumping 1-acre foot increased from $1.50 to $60 in 10 years currently federal price supports for water intensive crops encourage use, like cotton water will only supply the plain states for next 40-50 years HISTORICAL WATER RIGHTS: everything used to be free DOCTRINE OF RIPARIAN RIGHTS: eastern U.S., waters belong to the bank of a watercourse, landowner adjacent to the water DOCTRINE OF APPROPRATION: western U.S., first come-first served, the right to the water is acquired when water is diverted from a watercourse for an economic or "beneficial" use, what is acquired first takes precedence, in-stream uses not recognized
LECTURE SEVEN NOTES FROM THE READING CHAPTER 7, 191-205 WATER SUBSIDIES: cheaper to use freshwater than to reuse water U.S. Bureau of Reclamation: $10 acre foot in Arizona, without subsidy $100 33-45% of water is used to produce surplus crops 960 acre farm can get subsidies ranging from one to several million FUTURE: 1940-1980 water use doubled, by 2000 water use will double again 66% goes to agriculture, will be a choice, industry vs. agriculture vs. domestic country against country, Ethiopia can divert Nile before it even gets to Egypt need better irrigation techniques and economic decisions, in California, 85% of water used is agriculture, but agriculture only contributes 2.5% to economy GREAT LAKES CHARTER: limitations on water must be imposed equally on all uses, in-state and out of state uses, the states and Canada have grouped together to manage the diversion of water, including a permit requirement in Illinois and Wisconsin if using more than 2 million gallons per day WATER MARKETING: farmers sell excess water to municipalities in the west WATER RANCHING: buy farmland for the water rights, divert water from agriculture when necessary INCREASING SUPPLY THE OLD WAYS: DIVERSIONS: lower water supplies threaten wildlife major undertakings paid for by the taxpayers, increasing in price during droughts a legal battle over whom should get the water divert it into arid regions where more evaporates accumulation of salts on irrigated land leaves it ruined 1 million acres ruined annually 27% of irrigated land in U.S. is damaged depend on totally engineered systems DAMS: collect water and provide a constant supply of water provides electricity recreational uses silt buildup from slowed stream water, which fills up reservoir stream fauna can not survive, lake fauna take over takes up land ASWAN DAM: Egypt, 1960-1970, resulted in no nutrient inflow into the delta, productivity dropped, filled up with silt faster than expected, too much salinity disease involving vectors increased, because they breed in the reservoir NEW DAM TECHNIQUES: increase oxygen to support fish flow water from top (warm) or bottom (cool) depending on what the local species require manage water flow to reduce erosion
LECTURE SEVEN NOTES FROM THE READING CHAPTER 7, 191-205 INCREASING SUPPLY THE NEW WAYS: GLACIERS/ICE MINING: pull iceberg to local cities, may be feasible effects on climate and surrounding waters are unknown DESALINATION PROCESSES: DISTILLATION: boiled and collected, using waste heat from power plants ELECTROLYTIC: positive or negative electrodes attract the charged salt OSMOTIC SEPARATION: pushed through a membrane that traps salt FREEZING: salt forms crystalline and can be removed requires energy and leaves behind lots of salt currently 3 billion gallons a day are made potable 60% of desalination occurs on the Arabian Peninsula CLOUD SEEDING: chemicals create surface agents where water condenses legal questions about whom owns the water have been working on since the 1940s DECREASING DEMAND: agricultural improvements: drip irrigation versus spray lined/sealed trenches instead of open plant hybrids that use less water better control of weeds industry improvements: repair leaks reuse domestic improvements: toilet tank devices limited flow faucets and shower heads sequential use of gray water waterless sewage for compost alteration of lifestyle: less water use versus cleanliness over everything rock gardens versus green lawns institutional adjustments: economic incentives to conserve water change pricing structure eliminate/reduce water subsidies there is no replacement for water, use efficiently and recycle
Jump to the TOP of THIS PAGE
Return to Previous Page | Forward to the Next Page 
Harvard University Extension School Distance Education Program
Created with support from the Instructional Innovations Committee, Harvard Division of Continuing Education.
System requirements & technical support available at Distance Education Program website.
Web development by Science Network (Boston). See credits & copyright notice.
| Click logo to return to |  |
the course Home Page |